An Afternoon with Andrew Pottorf

Two lectures - more detail to follow

1. Land and Liberty in Southern Babylonia during the Third Millennium BCE - During the third millennium BCE in southern Babylonia (southern Iraq), ownership or possession of agricultural land was linked to one’s freedom. People were natively categorized as citizens, enslaved people, or as serflike groups similar to but distinct from both. While political freedom was limited for the majority living under various monarchies across the millennium, citizens and the serflike groups were legally free in distinction to enslaved people. Economic freedom, however, was almost exclusively available to citizens, though their economic freedom was also limited. Due in part to the need for collective work to maximize agriculture, the vast majority of agricultural land was owned by a minority of rulers and temple administrators who subjected male citizens as well as serflike and enslaved people to mandatory work—female citizens were usually engaged in domestic work. However, only male citizens were subjected to this mandatory work for significantly less time and with land possession as their compensation, though serflike men could be compensated with land possession during the Ur III period. While much remained consistent over the millennium, the rise of the Sargonic and Ur III dynasties brought about further concentrations of power for the rulers and temple administrators, which probably led to increased economic inequality.

2. The Social Stratification of Ur III Umma - During the last century of the third millennium, the Ur III dynasty ruled Babylonia and its neighboring regions. The city of Umma in southern Babylonian was particularly well documented with over 30,000 texts, which allows for it to serve as a case study for the period. People were natively categorized according to orders as citizens, enslaved people, or as serflike groups similar to but distinct from both. Rulers and temple administrators owned virtually all agricultural land and subjected male citizens as well as serflike and enslaved people to mandatory work—female citizens were usually engaged in domestic work. The mandatory work imposed on male citizens was significantly less than what serflike and enslaved people had to perform. Male citizens were often compensated better, particularly with land possession. Since male citizens performed less mandatory work and had more wealth from land possession, they could rent additional land. Otherwise, they typically hired themselves out when they were not performing mandatory work. Although serflike people performed similar amounts of mandatory work as enslaved people, the former could be compensated better, sometimes even more than low-income male citizens. Both male citizens and serflike people were also given special exemptions to care for their parents. While one’s order significantly impacted his or her life and livelihood, one’s occupation, which was usually a result of one’s order and parentage, also played a significant role. Individuals engaged in resource extraction generally earned the least amount, those involved in construction and manufacturing or various services could earn more, and administrators or managers acquired the most wealth.

About the speaker - Andrew has a bachelor’s degree in biblical studies from Gordon College, two master’s degrees in biblical studies from Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, and a doctorate in Assyriology from Harvard University. His interest in Assyriology began with passions for the languages and writing systems of the ancient Near East during his previous studies. His dissertation addresses the social stratification of the Ur III period (ca. 2100–2000 BCE), and his research is focused on the socioeconomic history of the Ur III period and its broader historical context. Several topics include citizenship versus slavery, eldercare, everyday expenses, the land-tenure system, and working conditions. In 2025, one of his articles on people who were similar to yet distinct from citizens and enslaved people was awarded Runner-Up for Best Article of an Early-Career Scholar by the International Association for Assyriology. After completing his doctorate in the spring of 2022, he taught biblical Hebrew at Boston College and Sumerian at Harvard University for a year. Currently, he is the Teaching Associate in Assyriology at the University of Cambridge since the fall of 2023 and a Postdoctoral Research Associate at Trinity Hall since the fall of 2025.